Philosophy of physical education and sports in Brazil: an analysis of the philosophical foundations in the work of Inezil Penna Marinho / Filosofia da educação física e do esporte no Brasil: uma análise dos fundamentos filosóficos na obra de Inezil Penna Marinho

ABSTRACT The present study aimed to investigate the historical origins of the Philosophy of Physical Education and Sports in Brazil. The writings of Inezil Penna Marinho, former Professor of the University of Brazil between 1945 and 1984, were the first on this specific content in Brazil. Data collection resulted in six thematic categories, namely "Comments on Translated Fragments", "Philology of Physical Education and Sports", "Games, Hedonism and Transfiguration", "Leisure and Axiology", "Philosophy of Curricular Physical Education", and "Metaphysics of Brain". Marinho was an Eclectic, Foundationalist, and Casuistic philosopher. In his texts, Physical Education got ethical, axiological, aesthetical, epistemic, psychoanalytical, educational, political, and metaphysical attributes. Additionally, Marinho developed dialogues with authors from Aristotelianism, Platonism, Renaissance, Enlightenment, Evolutionism, Empirism, Freudism, Critical Theory, Hedonism, Platonic Theology, Stoicism, Cartesianism, and Bergsonism. Five classical issues appeared in his production: happiness as a transcendental demand; nature of the correspondence between language and reality; duality mind-body; historical conflict between freedom and domination; constitution of the subject. For him, gymnastics seemed to be higher in axiological importance than sports, games, and general physical activity. This result shows that the Philosophy of Physical Education and Sports in Brazil has its own traditions.

RESUMO O presente estudo objetivou investigar as origens históricas da Filosofia da Educação Física e do Esporte no Brasil. Os escritos de Inezil Penna Marinho, ex-professor da Universidade do Brasil entre 1945 e 1984, foram os primeiros sobre esse conteúdo específico no Brasil. A coleta de dados resultou em seis categorias temáticas, nomeadamente "Comentários sobre Fragmentos Traduzidos", "Filologia da Educação Física e Desporto", "Jogos, Hedonismo e Transfiguração", "Lazer e Axiologia", "Filosofia da Educação Física Curricular" e "Metafísica do cérebro". Marinho foi um filósofo eclético, fundacionalista e casuístico. Nos textos de Marinho, a Educação Física tem atributos éticos, axiológicos, estéticos, epistêmicos, psicanalíticos, educacionais, políticos e metafísicos. Adicionalmente, Marinho desenvolveu diálogos com autores do Aristotelismo, Platonismo, Renascimento, Iluminismo, Evolucionismo, Empirismo, Freudismo, Teoria Crítica, Hedonismo, Teologia Platônica, Estoicismo, Cartesianismo e Bergsonismo. Cinco questões clássicas apareceram em sua produção: a felicidade como demanda transcendental; natureza da correspondência entre linguagem e realidade; dualidade mente-corpo; conflito histórico entre liberdade e dominação; constituição do sujeito. Para Marinho, a ginástica parecia ter maior importância axiológica do que esportes, jogos e atividade física geral. Esse resultado mostra que a Filosofia da Educação Física e do Esporte no Brasil possui tradições próprias.

El gimnasio en casa (1861-1912): ¿De una moda a estilo de vida saludable? / The Gymnasium at Home (1861-1912): From a Fashion to a Healthy Lifestyle?

Resumen En España, con la aparición de los primeros gimnasios higiénicos en la década de los años sesenta del siglo XIX, la gimnasia doméstica fue una alternativa para quienes no podían o no querían asistir al gimnasio. La industria gimnástica inventó métodos y aparatos para facilitar el ejercicio físico en casa. El objetivo de la presente aportación es dar a conocer este tipo de gimnasia y estimular un relato circunstancial y original. A través de la prensa y de la bibliografía histórica de la época hacemos la revisión pertinente hasta 1912. Finalmente, este relato sirve para concluir una problematización en el entorno de la débil cultura física de principios del siglo XX en España.

Abstract When the first hygienic gymnasiums appeared in Spain, in the 1860s, home exercise was an alternative for those who could not or did not want to go to a gymnasium. The gym industry invented methods and apparatus to make physical exercise at home easier. This paper aims to describe these kinds of home gymnasiums and stimulate circumstantial and original narrative. Through the press and historical bibliographical sources of the time, we reviewed the subject in publications up to 1912. Finally, this narrative serves to conclude a problematization in the environment of Spain's weak physical culture at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Resumo Na Espanha, com o surgimento das primeiras academias higiênicas nos anos 60 do século 19, a ginástica doméstica era uma alternativa para quem não podia ou não queria frequentar a academia. A indústria da ginástica inventou métodos e aparelhos para facilitar o exercício físico em casa. O objetivo desta contribuição é divulgar este tipo de ginástica e estimular uma história circunstancial e original. Através da imprensa e da bibliografia histórica da época, fazemos a resenha pertinente até 1912. Por fim, esta história serve para concluir uma problematização no ambiente da débil cultura física do início do século XX, na Espanha.

Sport and social media: analysis of the Brazilian Gymnastics Federation's Instagram / Esporte e mídia social: análise do Instagram da Confederação Brasileira de Ginástica

ABSTRACT Among the possible languages of contemporary social media, the ubiquity of images has heightened the sense of on-line communication, and has been used to shape both personal identities and institutions'recognition. Such visual content is not only an artefact of social media isolated and individual, but surrounds itself with debates and discussions that involve political, legal, economic, technological and sociocultural ideologies. Based on Instagram Image and use of Cohen's kappa for reliability and validity of data, this study analyzed 2679 photos that were posted on Instagram of the Brazilian Gymnastics Federation (CBG). As a result, we noticed the prevalence of artistic gymnastics (54,1%), followed by rhythmic gymnastics (31%), both within elite level focus (97%) specially on international events (59,6%) with greater appearance of athletes (66%). These findings reflect the need to review the use of social media in order to contemplate the broad actions of CBG, such as the diffusion of all gymnastics disciplines, as well as their different events at various levels of practice, giving visibility to all sports persons.

RESUMO Dentre as possíveis linguagens das mídias sociais contemporânea, a onipresença das imagens elevou o sentido da comunicação on-line, e tem sido utilizada para moldar tanto identidades pessoais como de diversas instituições. Tais conteúdos visuais não são apenas artefatos de mídias sociais isolados e individuais, mas se cercam de debates e discussões que envolvem ideologias políticas, legais, dimensões econômicas, tecnológicas e socioculturais. Baseados na Análise de Imagem do Instagram e utilização do Cohen's kappa para confiabilidade e validade dos dados, esta pesquisa analisou 2679 fotos postadas no Instagram da Confederação Brasileira de Ginástica (CBG). Como resultados, notamos a prevalência de postagens sobre ginástica artística (54,1%), seguida pela ginástica rítmica (31%), com foco na prática do alto rendimento (97%), divulgação de campeonatos internacionais (59,6%) e, cujo atleta (66%) foi protagonista. Esses achados apontam a necessidade de revisar o uso das mídias sociais no intuito de contemplar as amplas ações da instituição, como a difusão de todas as modalidades ginásticas e seus diferentes eventos; nos diversos níveis de prática, sejam de alto rendimento ou de formação, assim como dando visibilidade a todos os atores do esporte.

El gimnasio y la academia: para una filosofía del deporte / No disponible

No disponible

El dispositivo gimnástico en el contexto de la medicina social decimonónica española. De las políticas higiénicas a los discursos fundacionales de la 'Educación Física' / The device of gymnastics in the context of nineteenth-century Spanish social medicine. From Hygiene policies to the foundational discourses of 'Physical Education'

Durante la primera mitad del siglo XIX las técnicas gimnásticas higiénicas y terapéuticas se fueron configurando en Europa como un dispositivo de saber/poder en torno al cuidado y dominio del cuerpo que, por una parte, permitió el desarrollo de un nuevo espacio de aprovechamiento profesional médico y, por otro, sirvió de justificación para la implantación y legitimación de la educación física escolar. Tras un proceso de localización, selección e interpretación documental, el objetivo de este trabajo ha sido identificar la genealogía de dicho dispositivo en el contexto español. Para ello se ha puesto el foco en las manifestaciones técnicas, en los conflictos y en los discursos sobre los que se fue conformando ese nuevo espacio profesional. Se ha hecho hincapié en la textura doctrinal constitutiva de la gimnástica cuya impronta -en términos de regularidad, estabilidad, autocontención moral y física- estaría presente en las justificaciones fundacionales de la educación física escolar (AU)

In the first half of the c.19, hygienic and therapeutic gymnastic techniques were established throughout Europe as a device of knowledge/power concerning care and control over the body that, on the one hand, allowed the development of professional medical exploitation and, on the other, served as a justification for implementing and legitimising physical education in schools. Through a process of the localising, selecting and interpreting of documents, the object of this paper is to identify the genealogy of such a device within the Spanish context. To this end, particular attention has been placed on the technical manifestations perceptible in both the conflicts and discourses on which this new professional space was constructed. Emphasis has been given to the constitutive doctrinal texture of gymnastics, whose mark-in terms of regularity, stability, moral and physical self-restraint-would be present in the foundational justifications of physical education in schools (AU)

Gym Brasil - festival nacional de ginástica para todos / Gym Brasil - a national festival of gymnastics for all / GYM BRASIL - FESTIVAL NACIONAL DE GIMNASIA PARA TODOS

Os festivais ginásticos representam eventos consolidados em muitos países, sobretudo na Europa, promovendo o congraçamento da sociedade por meio de apresentações coreográficas de ginástica. No Brasil, há indícios da oficialização do festival nacional Gym Brasil na década de 1980 embora outros festivais regionais remontem o inicio do século XX. Neste artigo, discutimos as características gerais do evento por meio de uma análise documental, bem como das tendências coreográficas por meio de uma análise dos vídeos da última edição do evento. Observamos que a maior parte dos participantes é do sexo feminino, adolescentes e jovens advindos da região sudeste. As coreografias utilizaram de materiais construídos e/ou adaptados (não oficiais) de pequeno porte com influência da música popular, principalmente samba e axé, com significativa ênfase nos fundamentos técnicos das modalidades gímnicas de competição. Entre os desafios que enfrenta o festival destacam-se: a necessidade de mudanças nas estratégicas de difusão adotadas pela Confederação Brasileira de Ginástica; de oferecer formação continuada durante o evento; de ampliar o número de participantes, especialmente de grupos de outras regiões do país. Todas elas visando maior representação geográfica e diversidade cultural.

Gymnastics festivals are events consolidated in many countries, especially in Europe, promoting the reconciliation of society through gymnastics performances. In Brazil, there is evidence of a national festival entitled Gym Brazil in the 1980s however other regional festivals date back to the early twentieth century. In this article, we discuss the general characteristics of the event through a document analysis, as well as the performances trends through video analysis of the last edition. As results, we observed that most of the participants are women, adolescents and young people coming from the Southeast region. The performances used constructed and / or adapted (unofficial) equipment, influenced by popular music, especially samba and axé, with significant emphasis on technical fundamentals of competitive gymnastics. The challenges facing the festival are: changes in diffusion strategies adopted by the Brazilian Gymnastics Federation; to offer continuing education during the event; to increase the number of participants, especially groups from other regions of the country. All of them seeking greater geographical and cultural diversity.

Los festivales gimnásticos representan eventos consolidados en diferentes países, sobretodo en Europa, promocionando el encuentro de la sociedad por medio de composiciones coreográficas de gimnasia. En el caso de Brasil, los registros apuntan hacia la década de 1980 para el inicio del festival nacional Gym Brasil aunque otros festivales regionales hayan sido realizados desde el inicio del siglo XX. En el presente artículo, discutimos las características generales de dicho evento a través del análisis documental, así como de sus tendencias coreográficas por medio del análisis de los vídeos de la edición de 2014. Observamos que la mayor parte de los participantes es femenina, adolescentes y jóvenes de la región sudeste. Las coreografías utilizaran de materiales adaptados (no oficiales) de tamaño pequeño, con influencia de la música popular, principalmente samba y axé, con significativa énfasis en los fundamentos técnicos de las modalidades gímnicas de competición. Los desafíos que afronta el festival son: la necesidad de mudanzas en las estrategias de difusión adoptadas por la Federación Brasileña de Gimnasia; aprovechar la oportunidad para ofrecer formación continuada; además de aumentar el número de participantes, particularmente de grupos de otras regiones del país. Todo ello buscando mayor representatividad geográfica y diversidad cultural.

Along paths converging to Bengt Saltin's early contributions in exercise physiology.

A fascinating chain of events led in 1941 to the formation of the Department of Physiology at the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute (GCI) in Stockholm, Sweden. Erik Hohwü Christensen, from the scientifically advanced Lindhard School in Copenhagen became its first professor. A central research question for him concerned determining the limiting factors for maximal physical performance in man. This was the academic setting where the sports interested medical student Bengt Saltin was introduced to exercise physiology. In the summer of 1959, he became involved in a study on intermittent vs continuous running. A doctoral project, with Per-Olof Åstrand as his tutor, resulted in 1964 as the thesis "Aerobic work capacity and circulation at exercise in man. With special reference to the effect of prolonged exercise and/or heat exposure". In the decade that followed, Saltin continued along that path. However, he also added a vital research line involving pioneering studies on skeletal muscles in the exercising man, a series of novel studies on the physiological demands in various sports, and studies of the effects of physical training within the general population.

A ginástica para todos na formação inicial: do contexto histórico à produção do conhecimento / Gymnastics for all at graduation: the historical context for the production of knowledge / Gimnasia para todos en la formación inicial: el contexto histórico para la producción de conocimiento

O objetivo deste ensaio é discutir a Ginástica Para Todos (GPT), a contextualizando e interpretando, através de sua conjuntura histórica, relacionada à sua estruturação e caracterização como modalidade esportiva, à formação profissional e à produção do conhecimento. Foram realizadas buscas em bases de indexação para a seleção de teses, dissertações e artigos (CAPES, IBICT, DAI, SCIELO), bem como nos sites oficiais da Federação Internacional de Ginástica (FIG) e da Confederação Brasileira de Ginástica (CBG), os quais oficialmente sistematizam a modalidade. Defende-se o conhecimento específico sobre a GPT tanto na formação profissional em educação física como para a produção e a socialização científica como um dos fatores fundantes à sua consolidação nos diversos espaços.

The purpose of this essay is to discuss the Gymnastics for All (GPT), the contextualizing and interpreting through its historical context, related to its structuring and characterization as a sport, vocational training and the production of knowledge. Searches were conducted in indexing bases for the selection of theses, dissertations and articles (CAPES, IBICT, DAI, SCIELO) as well as the official websites of the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) and the Brazilian Gymnastics Confederation (CBG), the which formally systematized mode. Argues the specific knowledge about the GPT in both professional training in physical education as the production and scientific socialization as one of the founding to its consolidation in the various spaces factors.

El propósito de este ensayo es discutir la Gimnasia para Todos (GPT), la contextualización e interpretación a través de su contexto histórico, relacionado con su estructuración y caracterización como un deporte, la formación profesional y la producción de conocimiento. Las búsquedas se realizaron en bases de indexación para la selección de las tesis, disertaciones y artículos (CAPES, IBICT, DAI, SciELO), así como los sitios web oficiales de la Federación Internacional de Gimnasia (FIG) y la Confederación Brasileña de Gimnasia (CBG), la que formalmente modo sistematizado. Sostiene el conocimiento específico sobre la GPT tanto en la formación profesional en la educación física como la producción y la socialización científica como uno de la fundación para su consolidación en los distintos factores de espacios.

[Comparison of medical practices of 'massage' and 'gymnastics' - at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century (England, France, Germany, Switzerland)]. / Approche comparée des pratiques médicales de "massage" et de "gymnastique". A la fin du XIXème siècle et au début du XXème siècle (Angleterre, France, Allemagne, Suisse).

Massage and medical gymnastics are very ancient form of medical practices and knowledge, nevertheless they seem to focus a growing attention between 1860 and World War I in Europe. These practices know a quick institutionalization, and the physiotherapy or "kinesitherapy" emerge as a discipline with some more structured training course for students and future practitioners. In fact, the determinants of this development are numerous, specialization, professionalization, cultural transfer, and more broadly with geopolitical influences and nationalist feelings, influence of the Swedish gymnastics.

A introdução da ginástica nos clubes do Rio de Janeiro do século XIX / La introducción de la gimnasia en los clubs del Rio de Janeiro en el siglo XIX / The introduction of gymnastic in the 19th century Rio de Janeiro clubs in the 19th century

Esse estudo tem por objetivo discutir a introdução da ginástica nos clubes do Rio de Janeiro do século XIX, mais especificamente nas agremiações formadas majoritariamente por "nacionais". Trata-se de uma pesquisa histórica. Como fontes foram utilizados jornais publicados na capital entre os anos 1850 e 1889. Espera-se melhor entender uma importante faceta da presença da prática na sociedade fluminense, uma expressão das mudanças pelas quais passava a cidade e da construção de uma nova sensibilidade pública para as atividades físicas

Este estudio tiene el objetivo de discutir la introducción de la gimnasia en los clubs de Río de Janeiro en el siglo XIX, específicamente en las asociaciones formadas por "nacionales". Se trata de una investigación histórica; se utilizaron como fuentes los diarios publicados en la ciudad entre los años 1850 y 1889. Intentase mejor entender un aspecto importante de la presencia de la práctica en la sociedad, una expresión de los cambios en la ciudad y de la construcción de una nueva sensibilidad pública para las actividades físicas

This study aims to discuss the introduction of gymnastics in 19th Rio de Janeiro clubs, specifically in the associations formed largely by Brazilians citizen. It is a historical research; as sources it were used newspapers published in the capital between 1850 and 1889. It expected to better understand an important aspect of the presence of the practice in society, an expression of the changes that passed the city and of the construction of a new public sensitivity to the physical activities

Exercises in therapy--neurological gymnastics between Kurort and hospital medicine, 1880-1945.

This article focuses on the convergence of sports and medicine in the practice of neurological gymnastics (Übungstherapie) in the German-speaking world at the turn of the twentieth century. It shows how Übungstherapie first found receptive ground within the peripheral medical space of the spa town (Kurort). Übungstherapie appealed to Kurort patients because, as a form of neurological gymnastics, it drew on the cultural capital of the broader German gymnastics movement. Only later did Übungstherapie find a place in more mainstream medicine, recasting itself as an integral part of neurological practice. Recuperating the therapeutic aspects of neurology, this article suggests that the development of Übungstherapie contributed to the formation of neurology as an independent specialty, distinct from psychiatry and internal medicine. It thus demonstrates the importance of expanding the scope of historical study beyond the traditional boundaries of the mainstream in order to understand clinical, institutional, and disciplinary change.

Statistics, gymnastics and the origins of sport science in Belgium (and Europe).

This paper analyses the introduction of statistics in the field of gymnastics and its effect on the institutionalisation of physical education as a fully fledged academic discipline. Soon after Belgian independence, Adolphe Quetelet's research already resulted in large-scale anthropometric statistics - indeed, he developed an index that is still being used and is better known under the name of the body mass index. His insights were applied by promoters of gymnastics who wanted to make physical education more scientific. Thus, Clément Lefébure, director of the Ecole Normale de Gymnastique et d'Escrime in Brussels, set up a comparative experiment (with pre- and post-test measurements) by which he intended to show that the 'rational' method of Swedish gymnastics produced much better results than the 'empirical' method of Belgian/German Turnen. Lefébure's experiment, which was cited internationally but which was also strongly contested by opponents, was one of the factors that led to Swedish gymnastics being officially institutionalised in 1908 at the newly founded Higher Institute of Physical Education of the State University of Ghent, the first institute in the world where students could obtain a doctoral degree in physical education. Although it rested actually on very weak scientific foundations, the bastion of Swedish gymnastics built in Belgium in that pre-war period collapsed only in the 1960s. From then on, sport science could develop fully within the institutes for physical education.

[Sauveur-Henri-Victor Bouvier (1799-1877): orthopaedist, surgeon and promoter of physical education]. / Sauveur-Henri-Victor Bouvier (1799-1877): orthopédiste, chirurgien et promoteur de l'education physique.

This article establishes the biography of a little known physician of the 19th century., whose commitment with orthopaedics and formulation of medical gymnastics was important: the surgeon-orthopaedist Sauveur-Henri-Victor Bouvier. Several constitutive processes of the medical field of the 19th century are analysed: specialization (around orthopaedics), professionalization and development of various therapeutic and hygienic methods (among them medical gymnastics). Bouvier's biography is particularly instructive and sheds new light on these different processes, as well as on the institutionalization of orthopaedics from the 1820's up to the 1870's, at the intersection between medical and educative fields, between hospital, medical faculty and teaching of gymnastics.

[Transformations of the relationships between medicine and physical activities from the beginning of the 19th C. to the beginning of the 20th C. in France]. / Transformations des relations entre médecine et activités physiques du début du XIXe siècle au début du XXe siècle en France.

In order to understand the modes of cooperation that are practically working between two groups with uneven social status, physicians and physical educators, since the beginning of the 19th century until the beginning of the 20th century, we consider the results of researches that have been realized since three decennials. The evolution of those relationships accomplishes itself while the definition of respective roles (physician hygienist, physical educator with sanitary conception) and the reciprocal adjustment of specialities are becoming more precise. The process is tight, and the adaptations of the respective tasks are continuously retranslated in terms of statuary dimensions and protection of respective jurisdictions of both groups in the process of professionalization.

Ginástica, higiene e eugenia no projeto de nação brasileira: Rio de Janeiro, século XIX e início do século XX / Gymnastics, hygiene and eugenics in the Brazilian nation project in 19th century

O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever a influência dos saberes médicos sobre a organização da Ginástica escolar no século XIX no Brasil. Para isto, utilizou como fontes: as teses para a obtenção do título de doutor da Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro e da Bahia; documentos da Academia Nacional de Medicina e da Escola Normal de São Paulo. Concluiu que a mentalidade higienista foi fundamental para a difusão da Ginástica no contexto brasileiro.

The objective of this study was to describe the influence of medical knowledge about the organization of the school gymnastics in the 19th century in Brazil. For this, it used as sources: thesis to obtain the title of Doctor of the Faculty of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro and of Bahia; documents of the National Academy of Medicine and the São Paulo Normal School. He concluded that the hygienist mentality was instrumental in spreading the gymnastics in the Brazilian context.

El objetivo de este estudio fue describir La influencia de los conocimientos médicos acerca de La organización dela gimnasia escolar en el contexto Del siglo XIX en Brasil. Para ello, fue utilizado como fuentes: tesis para obtener el grado de doctor en la Facultad de Medicina de Río de Janeiro y Bahía, los documentos de la Academia Nacional de Medicina y la Escuela Normal de São Paulo. Llegó a la conclusión de que La mentalidad higienista fue fundamental en la difusión dela gimnasia en el contexto brasileño.

Condições dos treinamentos de ginastas brasileiras participantes de jogos olímpicos (1980-2004) / Training conditions of Brazilian gymnasts who participated in the Olympic Games (1980-2004)

Este artigo tem como objetivo registrar e analisar as condições de infraestrutura dos treinamentos de ginastas brasileiras participantes de Jogos Olímpicos (1980-2004), na busca de reflexões para a modalidade de Ginástica Artística Feminina. Para tal, foi desenvolvida uma pesquisa qualitativa, que se utilizou do método de História Oral. A partir de uma análise cruzada dos depoimentos das dez ginastas colaboradoras desta pesquisa foi possível perceber que houve um aperfeiçoamento nas condições de infraestrutura a partir do início da década de 90. Este aperfeiçoamento é novamente impulsionado no final da década de 90, com a contratação de técnicos ucranianos, o estabelecimento de uma seleção brasileira permanente e investimentos nas condições de infraestrutura de equipamentos e ginásio. Porém mesmo com a transformação positiva da modalidade nos últimos anos, todas as ginastas do estudo relataram ter passado, em algum momento, por condições não adequadas de treinamento relativas às condições de infraestrutura.

This paper aims to register and analyze the training facilities used by the Brazilian gymnasts who participated in the Olympic Games (1980-2004), in order to reflect upon this aspect of Female Artistic Gymnastics. To achieve this goal, we developed a qualitative research study using the Oral History method. Based on a cross-sectional analysis of the testimonials given by ten gymnasts who took part in this survey, we observed that training facilities have improved since the 90's, when Ucranian coaches were hired, a permanent Brazilian team was established and investments were made on equipment and training facilities. Despite the positive changes we have witnessed in this sport in the past years, all gymnasts who participated in the study reported that they had to practice in inappropriate training facilities at some point.

Historical trends in the size of US Olympic female artistic gymnasts.

UNLABELLED: The lay press, scientists, and physicians appear to believe that gymnasts are continually getting smaller and that their "smallness" is a health risk. PURPOSE: To assess the historical changes in the size and age of the US women's Olympic gymnastics teams from 1956 to 2008. METHODS: The official records from the US Olympic Committee and USA Gymnastics of Olympic team members were assessed at 2 levels: individual height, mass, age, and body-mass index (BMI) and the team performance scores and rankings. Fourteen Olympic teams with a total of 106 team members, including the alternates, were included. Trend analyses were conducted using linear and polynomial models. RESULTS: Simple linear correlations indicated that since 1956, height, mass, age, BMI, and team Olympic rank have been declining. However, second-order polynomial curve fits indicated that in the last 4 Olympic Games the members of the US women's gymnastics teams have been getting larger. CONCLUSION: Women Olympic gymnasts were getting smaller through approximately the 1980s and early 1990s. Since then the size of these gymnasts has increased. The minimum-age rule modifications may have played a role in athlete size changes along with a shift from the near dominance of the former communist Eastern Bloc.

"Sports" medicine in Germany and its struggle for professional status.

In Germany gymnastics and sport had formed alliances with medical "sciences" as early as the 18th century. At the end of the 19th century, the rise of sport provoked heated debates among physicians about the benefits and the dangers of sporting activities. After World War I, sport became a fashion and a mass movement that increasingly attracted the interest of the medical profession. Doctors organized congresses and founded a professional organization and journal. Using theoretical approaches to professionalization, the efforts of "sport physicians" to gain professional status (and the resources and power connected with it) will be analyzed and interpreted.